A1c  glycated hemoglobin  AACE  American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists  ACC  acetyl-CoA carboxylase  ADA  American Diabetes Association  Akt/PKB  tyrosine kinase/protein kinase B  AMP  adenosine monophosphate  AMPK  adenosine monophosphate-activated protein  Ang II  angiotensin II  ATP  adenosine triphosphate  BAT  brown adipose tissue  CHOP  CEBP-homologous protein  CEBP  CCAAT enhancer binding protein  CoA  coenzyme A  DPP  Diabetes Prevention Program  EASD  European Association for the Study of Diabetes  eNOS  endothelial nitric oxide synthase  ER  endoplasmic reticulum  FDA  Food and Drug Administration  FFA  free fatty acid  FOXO1  forkhead box protein O1  G6P  glucose 6-phosphate  GDM  gestational diabetes mellitus  GIPR  glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide receptor  GLP-1R  glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor  GLUT1  glucose transporter-1  GLUT4  glucose transporter type 4  GLUTs  glucose transporters  G6P  glucose 6-phosphate, glucose transporter-1  GPR40  G protein-coupled receptor 40  HbA1c  hemoglobin A1c  HGP  hepatic glucose production  HSL  hormone sensitive lipase  IL-6  interleukin 6  INS-1  insulinoma cells in rat  IR  insulin resistance  IRS-1  insulin receptor substrate 1  JNK  c-Jun. N-terminal kinase  Kir6.2  inwardly rectifying potassium/kalium channel  LDs  lipid droplets  LDL  low density lipoprotein  LV  left ventricular  MIN6 cells  mouse insulinoma cells  MAPK  mitogen-activated protein kinases  mPTP  mitochondrial permeability transition pore opening  mTOR  mammalian target of rapamycin  NADPH  nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate  NF-kappaB  nuclear factors-kappa B  NIT-1 cells  insulinoma cells  p70S6K  p70 ribosomal S6 kinase  PA  palmitic acid  NOS  NADPH oxidase  p38 MAPK  p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase  PA  palmitic acid  PCOS  polycystic ovary syndrome  PGC-1α  peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-g coactivator-1α  PI3K  phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase  PKB  protein kinase B  PKC  protein kinase C  PPARα  peroxisome-proliferator activated receptor α  PTP  permeability transition pore  RCT  randomized controlled trial  RISK  reperfusion injury salvage kinase  ROS  reactive oxygen species  SERCA2  reticulum sarcoplasmic Ca2 +-ATPase  RISK  reperfusion injury salvage kinase  Smad3  mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3  SRC-2  steroid receptor coactivator 2  T1DM  Type 1 diabetes mellitus  T2DM  Type 2 diabetes mellitus  TGFβ1  transforming growth factor β1  TLR4  Toll-like receptor  TNF-α  tumor necrosis factor α  TR4  testicular receptor 4  UKPDS  United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study  VLDL  very low density lipoprotein  Metformin  Pancreatic β Cells  Heart failure  Insulin sensitizer  

4E-BP1  4E binding protein  AMPK  AMP-activated protein kinase  ATF6  activating transcription factor 6  ATP  adenosine triphosphate  DEPTOR  DEP domain containing mTOR-interacting protein  CI  complexes I  CII  complex II  CIII  complex III  CIV  complex IV  CV  complex V  eIF2α  Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 2α  ER  Endoplasmic Reticulum  ERAD  ER-associated degradation  ERO1α  ER oxidoreductase 1 α  FoxO1  Forkhead box O1  GβL  G Protein β Subunit Like Protein  GRP78  78 kDa glucose-regulated protein precursor  GSIS  glucose-stimulated insulin secretion  IRE1  Inositol-requiring enzyme 1  IRS1  Insulin receptor substrate 1  IRS2  Insulin receptor substrate 2  mLST8  mammalian lethal with sec-13 protein 8  mSin1  the mammalian stress-activated MAP kinase-interaction protein 1  mtDNA  mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid  mTOR  mammalian TOR  mTORC1  mTOR complex 1  mTORC2  mTOR complex 2  NADPH oxidase  Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-oxidase  NOS  nitric oxide synthase  O2–·  superoxide anion  H2O2  hydrogen peroxide  OH·  hydroxyl radical  3O2  triplet-state molecular oxygen  OXPHOS  oxidative phosphorylation  CAT  catalase  GPx  glutathioneperoxidase  PERK  Protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase  PDI  ER protein disulfide isomerases  PI3K  the phosphoinositide3-kinase  PRAS40  40-kDa proline-rich Akt substrate  PRAS40  the 40-kDa proline-rich Akt substrate  PROTOR  the protein observed with RICTOR  RAPTOR  regulatory-associated protein of mTOR  RICTOR  The rapamycin-insensitive companion of mTOR  REDD1  DNA damage response 1  RNS  reactive nitrogen species  ROS  reactive oxygen species  RNS  reactive nitrogen species  S6K  S6 kinase  SOD  superoxidedismutase  T1DM  Type 1 diabetes mellitus  T2DM  Type 2 diabetes mellitus  TOR  the target of rapamycin  TSC2  Tuberous sclerosis 2  UPR  unfolded protein response  Mitochondrial oxidative stress  ER stress  mTOR  Pancreatic β cells  

lixisenatide  type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)  glucagon‐like peptide‐1 (GLP‐1) receptor agonists  Asia  

Biomarkers  Competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS)  Free fatty acids (FFAs)  Heuristic evolving latent projections (HELP)  Selective ion analysis (SIA)  Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM)